Philosophical Foundations of Knowledge and Research

Question: Discuss about the Philosophical Foundations of Knowledge and Research. Answer: Introduction: Epistemology can be defined as the knowledge of science. This philosophy studies the nature of the research questions and the methods of obtaining knowledge. It encompasses the development of thoughts, ideas, emotions and memories. It relates to rationality and makes people capable of determining what comprises of right or wrong actions (Zagzebski, 2008). The philosophy of science is a field of academic study that deals with defining science, how it works and the sources through which scientific knowledge is developed. Three epistemological questions that can be addressed by the philosophy of science are When can a person comprehend that we know something? When can a person comprehend that the source of knowledge is reliable? What are the limitations of knowledge? The science often overlaps with philosophy. While making a scientific claim, it is important to examine from where the knowledge is developed and what are the limitations of the knowledge (Wenning, 2009). The falsifiability principle states that every theory or hypothesis can be proved false or nullified. Popper said that falsifiability assists in demarcating real-science from pseudo-science as scientific query requires a hypothesis and scientific query. If contradictory evidence is gathered in-between the query, it should be falsified. The pseudo-science is irrational and is not supported by scientific evidence (Popper, 2014). Popper said that Freuds theories were not real science as Freud did not utilize proper scientific investigation while developing theories. Freud first developed theories and then collected facts to support these theories. The facts or evidence that contradicted his theories were ignored during this investigation (Martin, 2000). The inductive problem is a reasoning approach which focuses on knowledge that has lack of justification. In inductive reasoning, several sets of observations are made and theory or hypothesis is developed upon its basis. An inductive argument is considered reliable if it yields similar results at most of the situations (Sarkar Pfeifer, 2005). In statistics, induction can be realized as a problem-solving approach wherein induction problem holds true, provided certain conditions and probability theory is integrated in the approach (Rojo, 2006). Inference to the best explanation is a reasoning approach in which when an observation is made, a theory is accounted which is most likely to explain the situation. It puts special emphasis on explanations and frequently employed in everyday situations as well as scientific queries. It is most commonly used theory in reaching conclusions, as the scientists heavily rely on previously postulated theories for arriving at conclusion (Stanford, 2011). Occams Razor is the principle that state that while explaining a certain phenomenon it is essential to make least assumptions and a researcher should not make decisions more than necessary (Woodward, 2010). It assists in obtaining best solution to the problem as it results in avoiding unnecessary theories. It is important to be careful in establishing links in cause-effect relationships as if correct links are not formed, it will result in misrepresentation of phenomenon and faulty theories (Repko, 2011). The difference between observation and detection is that observation is made on some phenomenon. It is the act of research of some underlying facts without some presumptions. In this research method, the researchrs observe natural occurrence of events and draw some assumptions from it. In contrast to it, detection is the process of discovering something that was hidden. In this theory, the researcher begins with a research questions and finds answers to it (Fellows Liu, 2015). Thomas Kuhn posited about normal science, paradigms and scientific revolution as he stated that normal science is developed by accumulating facts and previous theories. Kuhn stated that the time period of normal science is interrupted by discovering anomalies or inconsistencies in the previously established theories. This discovery leads to development of new paradigms and they direct the research in new directions. It results in scientific revolution (Kuhn, 2012). Several philosophers have stated that science should be based on deductive approach and induction has no place in science. As per this assertion, science is a deductive process wherein the researcher forms hypothesis and test verify by deriving and at last arrive at a particular observable consequence. The theories can either be verified or rejected on the basis of the hypothesis (Stanford, 2006). The instrument reliability denotes that the research should yield same results irrespective of the research instrument used. Thee research instruments can instill bias in the research. The research instrument can also be modified to enhance the viability of the research (Sullivan, 2011). References Fellows, R.F., Liu, A.M.M. (2015). Research Methods for Construction. London: John Wiley Sons. Kuhn, T.S. (2012). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions: 50th Anniversary Edition. University of Chicago Press. Martin, M. (2000). Verstehen: The Uses of Understanding in the Social Sciences. Transaction Publishers. Popper, K. (2014). Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. London: Routledge. Repko, A.F. (2011). Interdisciplinary Research: Process and Theory. SAGE Publications. Rojo, J. (2006). Optimality: The Second Erich L. Lehmann Symposium. IMS. Sarkar, S., Pfeifer, J. (2005). The Philosophy of Science. Psychology Press. Stanford. (2006). The Problem of Induction. Retieved 12 December 2016 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/induction-problem/ Stanford. (2011). Abduction. Retrieved on 12 December 2016 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abduction/ Sullivan, G.M. (2011). A Primer on the Validity of Assessment Instruments. J Grad Med Educ, 3(2), 119-120. Wenning, C.J. (2009). Scientific epistemology: How scientists know what they know. J. Phys. Tchr. Educ. Online, 5(2). Woodward, J. (2010). Program Induction, Complexity and Occam's Razor. LAP Lambert Acad. Publ.